Sex In History Essay -- Sexuality

As we human beings have changed and evolved over our thousands of years of recorded history, so have our attitudes and expressions of all things sexual. The only thing that hasn't changed much is society's desire to exercise a certain amount of control over an individual's sexual behavior. Whether it be through church or state, educational institutions or popular media of the time, there have been rules and regulations, views and taboos about what we should do sexually, how we should do it, who we should do it with and even how we should think about doing it. Body parts A particular area of interest, naturally, has been the body and specifically those parts that are obviously connected with sex. We've alternately hidden and displayed, worshiped and derided male and female genitalia. In most non-Christian cultures there were gods and goddesses of power and fertility with exaggerated genitals. Some cultures liked penis gods so much they had several; for instance, the ancient Greeks honored Priapus, Dionysus and Hermes. The Egyptians exalted Osiris, Bacchus was the Roman version, and Shiva reigned in India. Penis and, less commonly, vulva worship, were practiced and this was reflected in objects connected with daily living. Vases in classical Greece were decorated with phalluses. In the ruins of Pompeii penis symbols were found just about everywhere, on bowls, lamps and figurines. Pitchers with enormous penis spouts were a unique specialty of the Mochica culture of Peru. The exteriors of medieval Irish churches were adorned with sculptures of Shelah-na-Gig, a vulva icon. In Egypt enormous symbols of penis power Ââ€" the obelisk Ââ€" were erected all over the landscape. Smaller penis symbols in the form of amulets and bracelet... ... modern birth control emerged in Egypt about 300 BC. There they used mechanical and chemical methods that foreshadow modern diaphragms, cervical caps and spermicides. Their versions included lint pads soaked in honey and acacia tips, and crocodile dung compacted with auyt-gum, both to be inserted into the vagina as a barrier to semen. Some Romans of the 4th century decided that the best way to prevent unwanted pregnancy was to diminish a wife's desire for sexual intercourse. Specific methods included: mouse dung liniment; swallowing pigeon droppings mixed with oil and wine; or rubbing her loins with the blood of ticks off a wild black bull. Condoms began to come into their own during the 18th century. They were usually made of sheep gut, or sometimes fish skin, and were originally introduced not for prevention of pregnancy but as a protection against syphilis.

Mr. Shamal Fernando

I am dealing with Cardiovascular, Anti diabetic and general product range. There are 7 Sirs and 3 sales representatives under my supervision, and the product range is highly expensive. I am responsible of the growth and the monthly sales of the above range including the strategic implementation for products. Also I am responsible for the training, Development and whole island Sales. In Sir Lankan I report to the Managing Director and the Principles. I have 7+ years of Marketing and Sales experience in Pharmaceutical, Insurance and Consumer products both in SSL and Philippines. Also I was worked as an Educational counselor at Speech power in Philippines.At the moment I'm giving teaching sessions to the orphaned children. I do Serviced Customers', enthusiastically and deliberately to provide Excellent customer satisfaction. Objective To be a productive & innovative marketing oriented person in the Pharmaceutical ,fast moving & challenging business environment and to acquire and enhance my knowledge and be able to effectively practice these in the pursuance of my career. I pursue to become a Professional customer service individual along with good Salesmanship and Management and to be the most highlighted individual in my career. Person My Sales, Marketing and Customer oriented services counts more than 7 years.I have a good understanding of customer needs and their mentality on purchasing goods. I am very much capable of handling Sales & Marketing staff to get the best out of them. I have been awarded the hard & diligent working employee' in one of my former companies. I have tirelessly worked in any company I worked with honesty. I as an individual always try to delight people whom I associate with . This has made me a preferred employee by my superiors where-ever I have worked. I have a very good command of English. Educational Qualifications I passed the G. C. E OIL Examination in December 1997 with one distinction pass and seven credit passes.

Training And Development In Vietnam - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6211 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1.1 The importance of the study 1.2 Aim and objectives of the project Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Training And Development In Vietnam" essay for you Create order 1.4 Dissertation structure Chapter 2 Literature review 2.1 Defining the terms: Human Resource and Human Resource Development, Training, Development 2.1.1 Human resource 2.1.2 Human resource development 2.1.3 Training 2.1.4 Development 2.2 Purpose of training and development 2.3 Training and development progress in an enterprise 2.3.1 Methods of Training and development 2.3.2 Process of training and development 2.4 Factors affect training and development 2.4.1 Internal factors 2.4.2 External factors Chapter 1 Introduction The background of the study Vietnam is one of the countries which have the fastest and the most impressive growing economies in recent years. It is a transitional economy and is developing more and more with an open door government policy. In 1986, Doi Moi economic reform was initiated and made a breakthrough for the economy of Vietnam. It transferred Vietnam from socialist-oriented market economy to the free-market economy. On 11 January 2007, Viet Nam became the official 150th member of World Trade Organisation (WTO). The day was considered as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a historic day for the country. Joining the WTO, Vietnam seems to accept increased competition, and competition will make the economy more dynamic. Moreover, it creates a dynamic and challenging environment for local organizations to upgrade their operations both technologically and managerially, in order to unlock the immense potential of the countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s natural and human resources. (Mcneil et al, 1999). However, using the national human resource in effectiveness way seems to be not simple. It could be a challenge for any countries. In fact, Vietnam has the population which is more than eighty million (Vietnam general statistic office, 2010). It supplies a large labor force which seems to be a competitive advantage for a developing country like Vietnam, especially in attracting FDI (T. Le, 2007). However, this advantage is passing off in current situation. When using and development of technology, machinery in enterprises becomes popular, the competitiveness depends on human resource quality. Sadly, Vietnam is losing its competitive capability. In the Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010, Vietnam is down five positions from 70th to 75th, in which the quality of education system is one of the worst elements. In reality, the poor quality in education and training prevent the country from developing. Vietnam labor force has weaknesses and limitations. Every year, a high percentage of students graduated from universities have difficulties in finding a job because of lacking knowledge and skills. According to a re port by the HCMC Department of Labor, War Invalids, and Social Affairs, only around one third of the enterprises in the countries are satisfied with the qualifications of their new recruits (Saigon Times Weekly, 2002c). It seems that the higher education in Vietnam which is in old equipment and passive method could not satisfy the real market demand of high quality and skilled human resource in the period of development (Kamoche, 2001). Besides, proportion of employees who are trained in working is just 20% (Vietnam Ministry of Labour, Invalid and Social Affair, 2006). Duc Vuong (2008) argued that the staff training is required more caring in developing countries. As low labor cost is considered as an absolute advantage of labor-intensive economy but not high- tech or capital-intensive ones (Vietnam Ministry of Labour, Invalid and Social Affair, 2006). Hence, economies and business need to improve the training and development of employees. Similar to Malaysia, vision of becoming a developed nation by 2020 put an emphasis on HRD (). The purpose of becoming a developed country in the future absolutely raises the requirement of training and development human resource in Vietnam. In other words, there are more and more concerns about HRD activities in the country. In national level, Vietnam government considers highly qualified human resource as the important forces to encouraging the industrialization process and as the basic ground for the growth of economy (MPI, 2001). Vietnam government applied polices to encourage the HRD in the country especially in education. The government keeps push forward comprehensive reform enhancing the quality of training and education at all levels. Besides, it focuses on developing high quality human resource to meet the economic development demand (Khang, 2010). The government has also supported a program to improve HR skills in organizations through special training courses (from 2004à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2008). It helps companies and individuals in increasing their competitiveness. T. Tran and L. Le (1996) gave several experiences of the differences countries in HRD. They concentrated on the benefits of government policies of these countries in encouraging HRD and the lessons that Vietnam learnt from. However, it takes time to see what the real benefits from policies are and changes in HRD are. Moreover, applying policies depends on many elements which specific in each country. In Annual business report of VCCI (Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry) in 2007 provided an analysis of key developments include human resource development in Vietnam business environment and their impacts on Vietnam enterprises. It had showed the general impacts of human resources and labor supply in some specific sectors such as tourism, banking, constructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Since then, the specific solutions in HRD for each sector could be suggested. There is another aspect in HRD discus sed in Vietnam at the moment. HRD should be accompanied with national economic strategies. In fact, in Vietnam, in planning national economic strategies, the experts focus on economic issues without concerning human resource role which is the vital and essential elements to implement these strategies (D. Phung and D. Do, 2009). The problem appeared here is when these strategies are set up and the quality of human resource could not afford for them. In comparison with some neighbor countries in ASEAN, although HRD activities in Vietnam are concerned more, it is still new and weak. For instance, in the last decade, training consultants in Singapore have mushroomed. The emphasis on training is so much so that some companies have even created a standalone department on training along with the HRM department (). Hence, Singapore ranks very high in the world in its emphasis on training and development. Other example is in Malaysia, the HRD Act since 1992 forced the organizations which have more than 50 employees to support 1 percent of their monthly salaries to a fund to promote training (). Importance of the study Training and development human resource is not only the governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s responsibility but the organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s responsibility as well. In recent years, the training and development human resource has been paid more attentions in Vietnam organizations (Kamoche, 2001). There is a strong willingness to learn and to be trained in organization. However, the level of attentions and willingness could be decreased by the reluctance of employees to accept the new things and innovation. Also, there is a distinctive point of views in training and developing human resource within organization. While in foreign invested companies tend to considers training as a vital tool (Saigon Times, 2002), the SOEs sees it as an expense and tend to keep budget as small as possible (Quang and Dung, 1998). The training objectives between The importance of the study SMEs in Vietnam are a dynamic force of the Vietnam economy and have been contributing a lot of successes in the development of economy. In the research of Timothy Bartram et al (2009), he argued that Vietnam is currently providing and creating many opportunities for the growth and development of entrepreneurial businesses, which provides significant opportunities as well as challenges for managers of these enterprises. In human resources aspect, SMEs created around 60% of the total job for labor force (Sakai and Takada, 2000) and until now this number has increased significantly. Besides, private sector plays a big role in increasing GDP annual. Understanding the important role of SMEs clearly, Vietnam government has been developing policies and creating conditions generally for the growth of SMEs, and particularly for the human resource development in SMEs. The private sector grows and competes openly for experienced and skilled staff, HR assume new importance. However, SMEs face particular problems in HR. Certainly, small firms do not have the HRM expertise, infrastructure and general resources commanded by larger organisations (Hill and Stewart, 2000). The requirement of development of human resource is truly necessary because the business environment change day by day and employees need improve their skills and knowledge to maintain their productivity. Enterprises which want to maintain their competitiveness and effectiveness need to consider human resource development as one of the most important parts. Following Adeniyi (1995), he observed that staff training and development is a work activity that can make a very important and remarkable contribution to the overall effectiveness and profitability of an organization. Huang (2001) proved that training program has a close relation to the performance in the enterprises and training pr ograms produce real benefits for small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) In Vietnam, human resource especially human resource development is still a quite new area. At the moment, there are a few researches around Human Resource Development. Most of them show the essential requirement, challenges and opportunities of HRD in current situation of rapid economic development, the HRM of the nation in macro level. Some others illustrate more deeply in the situation of the HR and Human resource management in enterprises. In reality, a big question that what HRD is and how HRD plays its role in the enterprises still has not an answer. So, the research in this paper focuses on one main area of HRD which is training and developing human resource in the context of SMEs in Vietnam. It would give some contributions to the Vietnamese enterprises in referring the basic knowledge in training and developing human resource, analyzing the factors which could affect on their training and developing human resource actions in the context of Vietnam. Furthermore, the examples of experiences in HRD from some others countries and organizations will be shown as the lessons help enterprises in finding solution for their situation. Then, the view of HRD in enterprises would be cared wider and deeper. Aim and objective of the project The project focuses on the analyzing the actions of training and developing human resource in enterprises in Vietnam. The company selected in research is Deloitte Vietnam Company. It is the company of which the HRD activities will be analyzed specifically There are three principal objectives: Generalizing and developing of the principles in literature of human resources development and human resources in enterprises Using this literature to analyze and evaluate the activities in HRD in enterprises according to illustrate the advantage factors and disadvantages factors which affect in HRD in the company Suggesting solution and points of views to improve the HRD in the company selected. Methodology Dissertation structure Chapter 2 Literature review Defining the terms: Human Resource and Human Resource Development, Training, Development Development It is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the growth or realization of a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability, through conscious or unconscious learningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Development programmes usually include elements of planned study and experience, and are frequently supported by a coaching or counseling facilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (MSC, 1981:15) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Development occurs when a gain in experience is effective combined with the conceptual understanding that can illuminate it, giving increased confidence both to act and to perceive how such action relates to it contextà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. (Bolton, 1995:15) From these definitions, the development could show the movement to an improved situation that for the individual means advancing towards the physical and mental potential. There is one common theme that Nadler (1990) provided when he gathered the term of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“trainingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? is that both of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“trainingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? contain the word à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“learningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. He stated that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“training = learning related to present jobsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“development = learning for growth of the individual but not related to a specific present or future jobà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Human resource development About Human Resource Development, it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“refers to career development, training and development, and organizational development programs offered to employees to develop new or replacement knowledge and skills; improve their performances, potentials, and promotability; enhance to their general growth, and improve group and organizational effectivenessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (William R. Tracey, ) There are many strands to HRD such as personal development, development for a job, a situation, or for setting a new works. It could be a development leading to a better life for individuals, organizations or even wider communities as well. (J. Matthews et al ). In Coopey et al 1993:24, it is seen as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a capacity to incorporate learning into behavourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Furthermore, HRD is an extension of Training and Development, with a specific orientation towards organizational learning interventions which are created to improve skills, knowledge and understanding. Follow Leonard Nadler, HRD is defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a series of organized activities conducted within a specified time and designed to produce behavioral changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of individuals in organizations. (Nadler, 1970). It includes 3 types of vocational learning activity which help individuals to be more effective at work: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Training focusing in immediate changes in jobs performance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Education, geared towards intermediate changes in individual capabilities à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Development concerned with long-term improvement in the individual workers ( Nadler, 1970) In à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Principle of HRDà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, Jerry W. Gilley et al showed three fundamental component areas of human resource development. They are individual development (personal), career development (professional), and organizational development. Each component has their own importance roles which vary from organization to organization accordant with the operation complexity, the criticality of human resources to efficiency in organization, and the organizations commitment to improved human resources. However, all of three component areas have one focus which is individual performance improvement. The individual performance improvement is the heart of an HRD program, and HRD can be described as the area of congruence among the three components (Gilley, and Eggland 14) (see figure 2.1) (Figure 2.1) It is also importance to distinguish the field of human resources in organization which covers a broad spectrum of human activity. In fact, there is still a misunderstanding in HR sectors in enterprises, especially in developing countries such as Vietnam where the HR sector is still new. Based the human resource wheel (McLagan and Suhadonik, 1989) and the wheel of HRM (Harison, 1997), the human resource compass which indicates an overview of the territory and gives direction to to the various elements in the subject and their interrelationship was built. It is divided in 3 main sectors HRD, HRD and HRM, and HRM. (J. Wilson, 2005) (Figure 2.2) Human resource à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Human resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? are described as the individuals who comprise the workforce of an organization. They are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the people that staff and operate an organization- the executives, managers, supervisors, scientists and engineers, technicians and marketing and sales personnel, administrative and clerical personnel, and hourly workers- as contrasted with the financial and material resources of an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (William R. Tracey, ) It is also the name of the function in an organization which has a responsibility for implementing strategies and policies relating to the management of individuals. In other words, it could be understood as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the organizational function that deals with the people who manage, produce, market and sell the products and services of an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (William R. Tracey, ) In a nation, the economic value of human resources resides not in numbers or physical characteristics such as height, but in the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are the result of norms and education provision. Training Training, according to the Manpower Services Commissionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Glossary of training terms, is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a planned process to modify attitudes, knowledge or skill behavior through learning experiences to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of individual and to satisfy the current and future needs of the organization. (MSC, 1981:62). In CEDEFOP (1996:52), training is defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“activity or program of activities designed to teach the skills and knowledge required for particular kinds of workà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Training takes places, whereas education takes place at educational establishment. In reality, both of definitions illustrate about the application of training to the improve skills and competences to meet the requirement of the organization. In training, the limitation is also indicated to the specific skills and operations. In comparison with education, training normally has an immediate application and is completed in a shorter time than education. (Van Wart et al, 1993) Purposes of Training and Development Training and development (TD) was beginning to receive more attention in Vietnamese organizations (Kamoche, 2001). Training and development actually refers to a planned effort which the organization build to facilitate the learning of job-related behavior (such as knowledge and skill acquired by an employee through practice) on the part of its employees. (Wexley et al,1991). The general purpose of traning and developing involves knowledge and skill acquisition. The employee quality and their development through training are consider as the major factor in determining long-term profitability of enterprises. A good investment in the development of skill for employees will help them increase their productivity in working. In fact, there is a view that training often is considered for the new employees. It is totally incorrect because ongoing training for current employees helps them adjust to rapidly changing job requirements. (Small Business Management) Training and development creates a benefit that the communication abilities of employees can improve, which enhances their adaptability. Better-educated workers can give the flexibility needed to switch production and better accommodate innovation, retraining and relocation (Godfrey, 1997). Traning and Development progress in an enterprise Training and Development has traditionally been a functional division of the personnel or human resource department related to carrying out the identification of training and development needs, planning and designing training and evaluating it. (see figure 2.3) (Figure 2.3) the classic training cycle Winter (1995) did not using the term à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“HRDà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, he talked about a system approach to developing employees with the starting point à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the business objectivesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. So the classic training cycle can be seen to be based on organizational strategy within a company. (Figure 2.4) Business objectives within a training cycle Methods of Training and development In training, there are a numerous techniques available for presenting information and transmitting skills. Each of the techniques has their own advantages and disadvantages. The application of training method depends on the specific situation. In general, training has been widely used by companies in Vietnam. But, they differed in the use of training options (Quang, 2006). On-site training methods The main advantages of on-site training are the problems of transfer of learning and training cost are minimized. The reason is the trainees learn the skills and knowledge in the same physical and social environment. Moreover, with certain of these techniques, the trainees are able to contribute their work while they are learning. This things reduce the training cost. (Wexley et al,1991). On the other hands, on-site training has some limitations. Most of the co-workers and supervisors do have motivation to provide the trainees with worthwhile learning experiences. (figure 2.5) on-site methods classified according to goals and strategies The table shows that a training effort can have one or more of the following goals. These goal boards can be achieved by directing training efforts at the traineesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ cognition, behavior or environment. From the table, on-site methods were classified in categories. Orientation training and the socialization of new employees It is important to help new employees to get in a right way in order to reduce their anxiety and to increase their job satisfaction and commitment. (Louis et al, 1983). The procedure of this method should begin carefully and in detail. The poor orientation programs could make damage to organization because they reduce the effectiveness for the first few time on the job and may lead to dissatisfaction and turnover. (Gomersall et al, 1966) Smith (1984) showed ten tasks accomplished in the program such as introduction the company; review of policy, benefits, services, employer expectations; benefit plan enrolment; completion of employment documents; setting employer expectations; introduction to fellow workers, to the facilities, and the job. On-the-job training In this training method, the trainees are expected to learn the job by observing the experiences employees and by working with the actual materials, personnel and machinery that will comprise the job when the formal training is completed. On the experienced employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ aspect, they is expected to provide not only a favorable role model to whom the trainee can identify but the instruction and the guidance from the job duties as well. (Wexley et al,1991). Apprenticeship training Apprenticeship programs are initiated by a committee composed of representatives for management and labor. The joint of committee works together with the department of Laborà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT) in developing a set of standards that specify the features of particular program such as number of class hours, workshop instruction, curriculumà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Job aids A job aid is a repository for information, processes, or perspectives that is external to the individual and that supports work and activity by directing, guiding, and enlightening performance. (Rossett et al, 1991). The goal of Job aids is to teach job skills and to accomplish this by using a behavioral strategy. Coaching/ Mentoring: Mentoring and coaching have been provocative practices in both the practical and academic organizational development and human resource development literature for almost ten years. (Bokeno, 2003) Coaching the employees through the use of periodic reviews of performance is a difference way of on-site training. Coaching serves a several important function in organization. Firstly, it lets subordinates know what their supervisors think about their work. Then, the supervisors and employees work together on the way that helps improve employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ performance. Thirdly, it improves the interaction between supervisors and employees. Finally, it provides a framework for setting up short term and long term personal career goals. Related to the teaching of coaching is mentoring. Mentors are the people who have two or three higher level than trainees and they want to help less experience trainees to learn the ropes in a supportive relationship. (Wilson and Danes, 1988) Computer-based training It is a technique can be used in conjunction with coaching and mentoring. Computer-based training (CBT) refers to as interactive videos and videodisc, provides guidance and instruction by using computer terminal on an employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ desks. It is now used as an efficient method to many types of job. (Wexley et al,1991). Guy Sweeten of Information Transfer said that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The practical benefits of using computers to deliver training and perform assessment training have been proven. Computer-based training is highly flexible and fits with the demands of everyday work you can work on your own, at your own desk and in your own timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Job rotation It relates to giving a series of jobs assignments to trainees in various parts in organization for a specific time. The key of this method is to expose individuals to the changes in working environment in other places. In each department, trainees could put on an observational role, and take responsibility for training specified results. Job rotation is considered as a perfect method for preparing high potential and specialist for future general executive responsibilities. (Farnsworth, 1975) Off-site training methods Off-site training methods are often used in organizational settings. An advantages of this method is that it allows the trainees to learn skills and knowledge away from pressures of day-to-day job. The other benefit is the use of competent outside resources people who are trained trainers such as technicians, consultants. The limitation of it is the transfer of learning from classroom to the job. (figure 2.6) off-site methods classified according to goals and strategies Lecture Lecture method has been frequently criticized as a training and development technique. (Korma, 1977). In fact, it does not bring a high benefit. Firstly, its format emphasizes one way flow communication from trainers to trainees, which make the trainees are passive in learning. Secondly, it fails in transfer job-related skills. The lecturers ignore the differences in traineesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ abilities, backgrounds and interests. In additionally, individualized and reinforcement of trainees are prevented. Audiovisual techniques This method can be used widely in many training and development programs. Teaching and learning with audiovisual technique has several advantages. First, it helps trainees to illustrate and see clearly the overview image of what trainers want to delivery lively. Then, it helps distance learning effectively when the trainers and trainees are in difference places. Teleconferencing It is a method for simultaneously training individuals at the multiple sites. A teleconferencing network consists of a central broadcasting facility, a satellite service whose signals is delivered and transmitted to television projectors in meeting rooms, ballrooms, or corporate headquarter. Corporate classrooms Corporate classroom aims to tech employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ skills and to accomplish this by using cognitive strategy. This method is often in big corporations. They intend to build their own universities and colleges to continue the further education for their employees. Equipment simulators It is excellent way to bring realism to off-site training situation. In this method, simulators of the equipment are designed and set up away from the actual work situation. Advantages from the method are the time pressures for productivity are minimized, individualized feedback is increased and opportunities for repeated practice are provided. Computer-assisted instruction In this method, trainees interact directly with the computers. The training is combined with learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ exercises manuals, equipment stimulations, job aidsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The role of computer here involves administratering and the training programs to the trainees and testing their performance after learning. (Patrick et al, 1977). It could assess the progress of trainees and provide a method to fit the traineesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ needs Each enterprise will use the differences training methods which are suitable to their situation within organization. In Vietnam situation, Webster and Tausig (1999) did a survey which showed that 93 percent of the surveyed SMEs provided in-house training for freshmen and off-the-job training. Most SMEs rely only on informal training due to budget constraints (Tran and Le, 1999). However, the process to have a good training and development program is not simple Process of Training and Developing Analyzing the training and development needs It is considered as the first step in the process of training and development. Boydell (1983) showed three levels of training needs within organizations which are organizational level, occupational level, and individual level. Organisation analysis looks at the organization as a whole. This relates to examining organization interface with the external environment, in which it operates, the acquisition of its state objectives, its human resources, and the inner climate. The purpose of organization analysis is to determine where the training activities should be conducted. Occupational analysis includes five steps in conducting task analysis. The five steps are (1) Obtaining a company job description; (2) Identifying the tasks for which the training is designed; (3) Identifying the knowledge (K), skills (S), and abilities (A); (4) develop course objectives; (5) design the training program. In the individual analysis, organization identifies any shortfall in individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ knowledge, skill and attitudes required to perform their jobs. (Figure 2.7) P. Nick Blanchard, James W. Thacker (1999), Effective training: systems, strategies, and practices In fact, when the results of employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ performance do not satisfy and meet the requirement of job analyzed in occupational analysis. That means there are problems. In that case, organization needs to find a solution. In table below, it illustrates the way to approach how to examining performance problem of the employees (Figure 2.8) Robyn Peterson (1998), Training Needs Assessment Analyzing the training and development in this way has advantages and disadvantages. It helps the organization have an accurate overview of training and development needs within organization. Beside, it guarantees the links between the training and requirement of trainees. However, it takes time to analyze. During the process of analyzing, the thing could happen is the number of training needs is larger than can be met through current resources. So, it is necessary to prioritize the needs (J. Wilson, 2005) Training and development plan The result from the process of analyzing an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s training needs is a training plan. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“This plan is constructed by the training department and is used to strategically plan what kinds of training will be conducted in the near futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. (Wexley et al,1991). Moreover, during the process of analyzing, the thing could happen is the number of training needs are larger than can be met through current resources. So, it is necessary to prioritize the needs. The content of a training plan should includes objects and objectives of training, theme of the training courses, the time of training courses, trainers, and training methods, the place of training class, and the cost of trainingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (HRD in SMEs) When planning a training program, it is essential to establish an evaluating system for the result of program. The plan should be clear and systematic, which help both the managers, trainees, trainers find easy to understand. Implementing training and development programs In implementing training programs, the most important factor is that the trainers have a responsibility on their trainees. The trainees are adult who have experiences, are capable of making informed choices and taking responsibility. (J.Wilson, 2005). In fact, older employees often demonstrate their willing to learn and participate in training programs less than younger employees (Cleveland Shore, 1992; Colquitt et al., 2000). So, the trainers need to be aware of their trainability, personality, and age. The key of training adults is that the trainer could encourage and motivate their trainees. So, there are some good recommendations summarized from Kurt Kraiger (2002): * Mix trainees of all ages in groups and encourage them to talk together and share experiences. * Use materials that are based on what the trainees already know. * Emphasize that training is not a remedial activity but rather an important strategic activity for all employees. * To counter resistance to change, emphasize the positive benefits of training. * Help older trainees who have not been in a learning situation for several years feel comfortable, personally contact them before the session to introduce it and answer any questions. * Allow trainees time to familiarize themselves with technology before using it for training. To improve the quality of training and learning, the active of trainers takes a vital role. They need to transfer their knowledge and technique in multi ways. Setting a goal for trainees and giving them the frequent feedback are useful as well. Evaluating the training and development programs In fact, there is a strong agreement that the proposed outcome of training objective could or could not measurable (Caffarela, 1994). However, the return of investment on training is always expected from businesses ( Willyerd, 1997). Evaluation effectiveness of training tends to be used to encompass all activities undertaken to help educators, trainees, trainers decide what aspects of teaching, training methods, planning worked or did not work, what should be kept and what should be changed. Evaluation can be top-down, bottom-up, collaborative or negotiated. (J. Wilson, 2004) Kirkpatrick (1994) gave a classic model to evaluate a training program. It includes 4 steps. First step is about reaction of participants to training. Second step is finding the answer for the question what have participants actually learnt from training. Thirdly is about behaviors of participants and its result of training. The last step is to evaluate if the training has the desired results in workplace. This model is widely used in research into training effectiveness and in human development practice. (J. Wilson, 2005) In reaction criteria, it measure how well the participants like the program including the content of training program, the trainers, and the method used. When reaction objective are formulated, a comment sheet should be designed. It should elicit reaction to training objectives, permit answers and allow trainees give additional comments Second step is about learning criteria which assess the knowledge gained by trainees. It could examine it by paper test or performance test. Self-evaluation could be used to know how changed in each individuals. Thirdly, it concern with behavior on the job. Evaluation could be done by survey after a period of time the learners are back to job Fourthly, the cost of training and the time way from job are assed by cost and benefit analysis. The result of assessing return of investment on training affects employees at all levels (Philip, 1996). Both employees and employers look for the outcomes of training which are practical, applicable (Caffarela, 1994) Factors affecting Training and Development There are many factors which affects on training and development human resources of enterprise (J. Stewart and. Beaver; 2004). Both internal factors and external factors within organization have influence on the effectiveness of training program. Analyzing these factors are truly needed to improve the HRD program. Internal factors Internal factors include some main aspects such as organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s corporate HRD plan, organization structure, technology, attitude towards training, a financial approaching to training and HRD resources Organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s corporate HRD plan An HRD plan should be a detailed and authoritative statement of learning, training development. (M. Reid et al, 2004). Moreover, HRD plan should have a linkage with the business strategy of organization. In fact, training manager have to understands both long term and short term business objective of the company to formulate a training and development program which can support the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s business plan. So, the closer HRD plans and business strategies is, the more effectiveness HRD in organization has. HRD budget The ability in finance of organization affects a lot on activities of HRD program. (J. Wilson, 2005). Many enterprises have a big requirement in training and development for their employees. However, they could not build a high quality program or sending their employees to a good training service centers because of their limitation in HRD budget. Furthermore, HRD budget should contain both training and financial objectives. Exactly, the HRD budget depends on the following key factors which are the organizational structure, which affects the way in which HRD department or function relates to the rest of organization. (J. Gilley and A. Cunich; 1998). Each department is expected to pay their way of training and costing their service for example, but in some organization, the HRD department is considered as a head and allocated a budget. The other factor is the financial system of organizations, in which the size of HRD budget is estimated. In particular, there is a widespread use of TD, performance appraisal and incentive payments in Vietnam at the moment. (T. Bartram et al, 2009). However, troubles are also recognised. For example, while most SMEs provided TD of one type or another, much of the delivery was informal. King-Kauanui et al. (2006) also showed that financial investment in TD was limited. Attitude toward training People are the important key of HRD. The attitude of trainers, trainees, employees and managers affect directly to the effectiveness of training and development program. Specifically, the attitudes of chief executive office and the executive in charge of various divisions or locations are the main source of organization training philosophy. (K. Wexley, 1991). To them, the attitude toward training mostly depends on their past experiences with it. Moreover, it depends on their perception of the labor market. For instance, they will consider if the prospective employees who have the necessary skills and experiences, or must unskilled people could be hired and trained. Besides, in employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ aspect, their willing to learn and be train takes an important part in HRD within organization (M. Reid et al). External factors External factors which affect the HRD of organization come from outside the boundaries of organization. Each external factor can have influence on the work people do and the skill people need to work. Labor market The work force is dynamic and it changes numbers and characteristic over time.(D. Caruth et al). As the labor market develops, the organizations could find more advantages in recruiting employees which satisfy their requirement. (J. Wilson, 2005). However, the shortage of skilled makes it more difficult to attract and maintain the number of employees to work in organization. In fact, there is a serious shortage of skilled labor in Vietnam which could support the drive toward better performance in organizations and the development of the country. The HCMC Department of Labor, War Invalids, and Social Affairs (MOLISA) estimated just only one third of the enterprises felt satisfied with the qualifications of their new recruits (Saigon Times Weekly, 2002c). The use of training as a good way to improve firm performance (Dinh, 1997) and the principle factor to the survival and success of SMEs (Ho, 1999) is supported by the academic community in the country. National Economy The economic health of a country has a direct relation to accomplishment of staffing tasks. (D. Caruth et al, 2009). In the time of economic growth, as firms expands, the competition for qualified employees increases, and certainly the requirement of training and development increase as well. In other words, the status of economy tends to increase or decrease the requirement of training and development as well as the change of priority or importance of HRD activities. Government policy () Technology Application of high technology brings a lot advantages for training and development program. Technology changes day by day, organizations with highly changing technology require continual retraining of both employees and managers. These technologies mentioned here could have main effects. Firstly, things such as computer, video, interactive video access to systems intranet, internet have significantly increased choice and flexibility of learning. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Whenever there is a computer terminal, there is a potential learning resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (M. Reid et al, 2004). Follow Kruise and Keil (2000), the uses of technology to deliver training and education are more popular. Most recently, internet and intranet delivery has become the favorable method. Secondly, the application of technology could change the perception of learning and development. (R. Swanson and E. Holton, 2001). And the more opportunities are giving to employees. In fact, they can learning and be trained and developed by many ways with flexible without going to the class. Distance learning is one example. There are still some factors which are summarized by Jim Stewart and Graham Beaver (2004). In this figure 2.9, they illustrated the elements which encourage HRD in organizations and the barriers as well.